Historical Background to
the Far East in the book,
A Manchukuo Incident
Gareth’s travels in the Far East and in particular his visit to Japan
must be seen in the context of the social mores and the political
history of the 1930s. The intrigues of the Japanese and their Emperor
Hirohito are difficult to comprehend at the beginning of the 21st
century. Our culture at that time was so different. The East has its
fascination and it is not surprising that Gareth was captivated by it.
It stimulated his enquiring mind to ask so many questions and I feel
that his tremendous zeal and enthusiasm carried him away. He came from
a Welsh Non-Conformist family and from his father came to believe that
all men were good. To quote the letter of condolence to Major Edgar
Jones from Mr R. Barrett of the The Critic in Hong Kong:
There is no doubt that Gareth was in deep waters, for the swirl of Far
Eastern politics is more ruthless and treacherous than anything
conceivable in the West, more a mixture of petty interests of money and
‘face’ with the enormous clash of national interests. They knew what he
had discovered in Russia and they knew what he had found out in the
East.
According to the eminent historian, Edward Bergamini, behind the Emperor
Hirohito’s pretence of virtue and innocence was a devious man. From the
early 1920s when he was Crown Prince, he wished not only to rid Asia of
the Western influence: “Asia for the Asiatics”, but was also contriving
to build a Japanese Empire. Gareth was not to know, or suspect at the
time, of the intrigues, the ruthless suppression, even assassination, of
those who deviated from the path or opposed the plan of expansion. Nor
could he have suspected Japan’s devious orchestration of incidents in
China with a view to eventual domination and colonisation of that
country. Still less that he would be at the centre of such
international intrigue. The Japanese history of the period runs red
with cruelty. Gareth was thoroughly informed about the news of the
time, but most probably unaware of the merciless side of the Japanese
Government. Though he asked penetrating questions, he must have been
unaware of their sensitive nature when directed towards a government
that had something to hide. Those ministers, or ex-ministers, he
interviewed do not seem to be as culpable as some were, but they were
responsible to their Emperor.
Japan in the late twenties was going through a period of depression and
was planning a campaign of expansion as the country was overcrowded and
lacked natural resources for home and for war. At this time China was
in a state of political unrest, ruled by local warlords. Chiang
Kai-shek was trying to unite his country and endeavouring to rule South
China. At the time he had a greater fear of the Communists than he had
of the Japanese. In 1928 his Northern Expedition drove Marshall Chang
Tso-lin, a bandit turned warlord, north to the Eastern Provinces known
as Manchuria of which he was the Governor. He was returning to his
capital, Mukden, from Peiping (Beijing or Peking) when explosives blew
up his train. Following his murder, the Kwantung Army planned to seize
the city of Mukden and much of Southern Manchuria, but this failed
because dissent among the senior officers prevented decisive action.
Marshall Chang Hsueh-liang, known as the Young Marshall, succeeded his
father and was to become a very key figure in China during the early
1930s. Chang Hsueh-liang was to find out that his father’s murder had
been perpetrated by the Japanese, and for this reason he hated the
Japanese vehemently.
Three years later Chang, who was
Commander-in-Chief of the North Eastern Frontier Army, was to lose his
Eastern Provinces and Mukden to the Japanese. On September 18th
1931, the Japanese planned and then executed an explosion on the South
Manchurian Railway destroying a small section of it. This provocative
deed, known as the Mukden Incident or to the Japanese as the Manchurian
Incident, was merely an excuse to attack the Mukden garrison and the
Young Marshall’s small air force base. Coolly planned and orchestrated
by Ishiwara Kanji to implicate the Chinese, the faked derailment of a
Japanese train was created purely as an excuse to invade Manchuria.
Thus the Young Marshall had further reason to hate the Japanese.
Having briefly toyed with the option of
direct negotiations with Japan, as was the wish of Shidehara, Chiang
Kai-shek concluded that he had no alternative, but to appeal to the
League of Nations because he was in no position to fight the Japanese.
Further to this, in January 1932, the Japanese engineered another
incident, known as the Shanghai Incident. Carefully orchestrated
demonstrations hostile to those Japanese living there were organised.
To protect her nationals, Admiral Shiozawa sent in his marines.
Unexpectedly fierce resistance was encountered. The 19th
Route Army Commander, General Tsai Ting-kai, and his troops fought very
bravely and announced that the 19th Route Army would: “fight
the Japanese to the last man if it has to dye the Whampoa river red with
its blood”. Chiang Kai-shek did not wish to escalate the war against
the Japanese and gave orders to Tsai that the: “19th Route
Army should take advantage of its victorious position, avoid decisive
fighting with the Japanese and end the war now”. Another interesting
source gave a fascinating reason for the cessation of hostilities, in
that the infamous female Japanese spy, Eastern Jewel, a distant relative
of Pu Yi, had betrayed Tsai. In 1933 General Tsai led an unsuccessful
coup d’état against Marshall Chiang Kai-shek known as the Fukien
Rebellion. He proclaimed martial law in the name of the people and
announced that the lack of financial provision for the 19th
Route Army had compelled him to take over Fukien revenue. This coup,
though not successful, suggests that it was Chiang who had influenced
the outcome of the end of the fighting in Shanghai and it seems the more
feasible historical fact.
The Japanese Year Book
of 1934 states that:
On March 1st, 1932 a
manifesto was promulgated announcing that Manchukuo was founded in
response to the unanimous aspirations of the 30,000,000 people living in
Manchuria and Mongolia and on March 7th Mr Pu Yi who once
ruled over the entire territory of China as the 12th Emperor
of the Ching Dynasty, consented to become the Chief Executive of
Manchukuo.
The League of Nations set up a
commission headed by Lord Lytton, which denounced Japan for its conduct
in annexing Manchuria. The League Assembly convened a special meeting
and an almost unanimous majority of the members accepted the report.
Siam was the only nation to abstain. Due to this unfavourable result
the Japanese delegation, headed by Mr Matsuoka Yosuke, left the
assembly. In March 1933 Imperial Sanction was given for Japan to
withdraw from the League.
In The Last Emperor, Edward Behr describes how Major General
Doihara, a Japanese secret agent, persuaded Pu Yi to leave Tientsin.
The Japanese officer convinced him that the Young Marshall wished to
destroy the deposed Chinese Emperor and that there was a contract out on
his life. The Japanese provoked riots, which were blamed on Chang
Hsueh-liang and eventually Pu Yi was smuggled out of China. He was then
formally enthroned as Emperor of Manchukuo on March 1st,
1934.
In his China and the Origins of the Pacific War, Youli Sun states
that the Tanggu Truce of May 31st, 1933 legitimised Japan’s
control of China, north of the Great Wall. According to the Japanese
version of events this practically put to an end the long protracted
state of affairs known as the ‘Manchurian Incident’. They declared that
they had no other intention than to maintain peace in the Province of
Jehol and pacify the provincial people from local banditry and the
invading troops from across the Great Wall.
On April 17th 1934, the Japanese Foreign Ministry spokesman,
Amau Eliji, stated that Japan had a special mission to maintain peace
and order in East Asia and opposed any financial assistance to China by
foreign countries and in particular any Western military or political
aid. This statement in fact confirmed the status quo and was proof of
Western inaction. The British and the United States responses to what
became known as the Amau (Amŏ) Doctrine were extremely indifferent and
both were unwilling to offend Japan by giving support to China. In May
1935 the Japanese Army presented a series of demands to the Chinese
authorities in Peking, including the withdrawal from North China of
Marshall Chiang Kai-shek's Central Army and the termination of all
anti-Japanese activities.
According to Youli Sun, the Marshall conceded to every demand except
withdrawal of the Central Army. Premier Wang Chin-wei and War Minister
He Ying-qin were eager to avoid conflict at any price and they verbally
agreed to all the demands requested by Major Takahashi Tan, the Military
Attaché. Nothing was provided in writing and the crisis mounted. The
British Ambassador to Japan, Sir Robert Clive, made representations to
Japan, but wished to remain friendly with this country, because the
British Government had to contend with the troublesome issue of
Germany. America was following a policy of isolation and had just
granted independence to the Philippines. With the world powers
indifferent to China's fate on July 9th 1935, Wang wrote to
General Umetsu (Umezu), the Japanese Commander in Tientsin, to concede
the demands. This became known as the He-Umetsu Agreement.
Japan obtained similar concessions in Chahar Province as in the Hebei
Province and Chiang Kai-shek realised that China would have to stand
firm against further demands from the Japanese. Much of his time had
been spent combating the Communists in the south. Mao Tse-tung and his
Communist followers were in the southwest and 1935 was the year of the
Long March. During these last negotiations Gareth was travelling north
of the Great Wall of China with his German companions Baron von Plessen
and Dr Herbert Müller to Prince Teh Wang’s court. Prince Teh Wang,
leader of the Mongol Princes was keen to establish his own independent
government of Inner Mongolia. Wang’s arrangements with Nanking failed
and then he turned to the direction of the notorious Japanese secret
agent Major General Doihara. He had the task of sponsoring Chinese
leaders to establish their own autonomous regimes in 1933. From then on
Prince Teh Wang was secretly in league with the Japanese at the shrine
of a Hundred Spirits. Little by little, Teh’s Mongol Government gained
allegiance of Inner Mongolia’s seventy-seven tribes or ‘Banners’, but
realising that they would be entirely dependent on Japan, many of the
Silingol banner and others eventually stopped supporting him.
Early attempts at southwards expansion had failed because the Japanese (Kwantung)
Army believed the northern warlords could be bribed into declaring
independence from Nanking. In November 1936 Prince Teh Wang, his Mongol
roughriders and the Kwantung Army, underwrote a Mongol expedition force
to establish an independent Inner Mongolia. The Chinese National Forces
at Pai Ling-miao in Suiyan Province soundly beat Teh’s troops. Though
he had once been a strong supporter the Young Marshall, Chang
Hsueh-liang, lost faith in Chiang Kai-shek following the He-Umetsu
Agreement, as the 51st Army in Hebei (Hopei) was his army.
Chang established contact with the Communists in 1936 and also with Zhou
En-lai. He captured Chiang Kai-shek in Xian on December 12th
1936 and persuaded him that the Communists (CPP) and the Kuomintang (KMT)
should present a united front against the Japanese. He kept Chiang
Kai-shek captive for two weeks until he agreed to abandon his
anti-Communist campaigns and resist the Japanese in their aggressive
plans. Chang persuaded Chiang Kai-shek to become the leader of a united
China. It was this unity of the Chinese nation that the Japanese
feared. Following a further fabricated incident, the ‘China Incident’,
the Chinese and Japanese armies clashed near the Marco Polo Bridge
outside Peking. On July 29th 1937 the Japanese troops
entered Peking and China was formally at war with Japan. On the 10th
December the city of Nanking was entered by the Japanese and there
followed for the next three months atrocities of an inconceivable
nature. This reign of terror by the Japanese Army became known as the
‘Rape of Nanking’. In September Prince Teh Wang joined the Japanese in
the war against China and occupied the Province of Suiyan. He was
designated a traitor of the National Government.
The history of China at this time was so closely linked with Japan that
one must now turn one’s attention back to that nation. During the
thirties Japan experienced a period of unchecked aggression abroad and
murderous conspiracy at home. The Japanese-inspired murder of Chang
Tso-lin, by blowing up his train, led to the resignation of the Japanese
government following which in 1928, Hamaguchi Yuko became Prime
Minister. Two years later he was shot and wounded by a right-wing
‘patriot’ at a Tokyo station and later died of his wounds. For a short
time Shidehara Kijuro, the Foreign Minister became Acting-Prime Minister
after the attempted assassination of the Prime Minister though at the
time of the ‘Mukden Incident’ he had resumed the office of Foreign
Minister.
The next year, 1931, the ‘Young Officers’ plotted a ‘coup d’état’ to
assassinate the entire Cabinet and recommended that Araki Sadao be made
Prime Minister. He had urged the high command [following the murder of
Chang Tso-lin] to send an army to overrun Manchuria. He headed the
40,000 strong Kodokai: an organisation based on the philosophy of Koda
‘the Imperial Way’, which recommended reform at home and expansion
abroad. “There is a shining sun ahead for Japan in this age of Showa”,
prophesied Araki. Showa or ‘Enlightened Peace’ was the title given to
the period of Hirohito’s reign. The coup was suppressed and Araki was
appointed Minister of War in December 1931 with the Seiyukai party. [Seiyukai
means Association of Political Friends.] This party favoured economic,
rather than military, expansion. He also favoured the Strike-North
rather than Strike-South movement, which was the vehement intention of
Hirohito and with whom he eventually fell out of favour. The
Strike-North faction favoured expansion into Communist Russia rather
than southwards into China and other Asiatic countries where there were
raw materials in which Japan was lacking. He believed there would be
war with Russia by 1936. Araki put short-term military preparations in
hand. He was the most powerful man in the cabinet. He and his friend,
General Mazaki, were regarded as leaders of the Kodo-ha or the ‘Imperial
Way School’ (Strike-North Faction). The Kodo-ha began to lose ground in
1934 and General Araki resigned, supposedly from ill health. In January
1934 he accepted elevation to the ranks of the Supreme War Councillors.
Emperor Hirohito and Empress Nagako.
Hirohito in Imperial robes.
The Emperor Pu Yi of Manchukuo.
The rival faction was the Tosei-Ha or ‘Control School’. General
Hayashi, who had once been Commander-in-Chief of the Kwantung Army, took
over office as Minister of War from Araki and came under the influence
of Major General Nagata. In 1935 he was active in opposing the
Strike-North Faction and ridding those in the army that supported it.
After much intrigue, he effected the resignation of Mazaki. In the
spring and summer of that year there were plots and counter-plots
culminating in the assassination of Nagata on the same day that Gareth
was killed. On August 12th 1935, outraged by the virtual
dismissal of Mazaki, an obscure lieutenant colonel cut Nagata down with
a sword. Hayashi then had to resign to save the government. In August
1935 Matsuoka was appointed to the Presidency of the South Manchurian
Railway. He identified the Railway Company as the economic spearhead of
Japan’s expansion into China and predicted that:
Because of the activities of the Soviet Union and the situations
prevailing in China, Japan is going to start operations in North
China. Most of the people of Japan do not yet quite understand the
great importance of the future operations and their lack of
understanding, I believe will beyond doubt bring about a really
serious crisis in the nation. Regardless how serious the crisis may
become, Japan cannot halt her Chinese operations. The arrow has
already left the bow. The progress of these operations will decide
the destiny of the Yamato race.
The history of the Far East following
the First World War should not be seen in isolation, but should be
viewed from a global context. Japan had entered The Great War on the
side of the Allies in August 1914. She soon captured the German
fortress of Tsing-tao and became firmly established in Shantung as well
as Manchuria. The ruthless German submarine campaign in the North
Atlantic forced President Woodrow Wilson to join the Allied cause in
April 1917. Prior to the entry of the United States, Britain and France
had secretly negotiated with Japan that she should acquire Germany’s
Chinese Concession of Shantung. President Wilson was very much against
this secret agreement, though he had to concede to it despite American
affiliation with China and growing anti-Japanese sentiments. This
acquisition incited Chinese students to demonstrate against the
Imperialists on May 5th 1919. (It was relinquished in 1922
following the Washington Conference.) It was partly on account of this
settlement that the Congress of the United States failed to ratify the
Treaty of Versailles or join the League of Nations, which had been
suggested by the President. On her part Japan was aggrieved at the
outcome of the Treaty because she felt she deserved more recognition for
the support that she had given the Allies. Japan was merely given the
mandate for the Pacific Islands that she had taken from the Germans in
the First World War, despite the fact that she wanted permanent
sovereignty. Japan failed to have a clause inserted into conditions of
the League of Nations declaring the principle of racial equality.
Further indignities were piled on this sensitive nation. In 1922 at the
Washington Disarmament Conference she was only given the smaller quota
of a 3-5-5 proportion of capital ships and the United States persuaded
Great Britain to end the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. In the following
years America became very anti-Japanese and denied the immigration to
the U.S.A. of Japanese workers because in their opinion the Japanese
émigrés did not assimilate into the American way of life. In 1930,
while Gareth was working for David Lloyd George, the London Naval
Disarmament Conference was held. He mentioned having seen some of the
delegates in one of his diaries and records his and Lloyd George’s
unfavourable comments. The ratification of the Treaty by Prime Minister
Hamaguchi and his cabinet had far reaching repercussions, because it was
considered by the Japanese that he had conceded to the Americans to
accepting a below the minimum number of warships. They agreed to a
lower ratio for auxiliary warships than the 10-10-7, which had been laid
down as the accepted minimum. This issue caused a bitter protest and,
with the Nationalists demanding action in Manchuria, culminated in the
attempted assassination of Hamaguchi.
Following the ‘Mukden Incident’ in September 1931, Japan felt that the
Imperialist nations supported China and were excluding Japanese
merchandise through tariff barriers and the restriction of free trade.
An article in Gareth’s possession by Ishihara Koichiro expressed the
opinion that the world was dominated by the white nations and that Japan
had long put up with insults by them. “Japan’s present solitary
position, international, economic and racial, in the nature of things
stimulates Japan to greater activity and advance. Up to the present the
white powers have been oppressing the coloured races, and through
exploitation of the latter have enjoyed luxury and prosperity.”
Ishihara considered that German-Japanese co-operation was the only step
to save Germany from total collapse and was also an effective way for
Japan to challenge the advance of the United States, Britain, France and
Italy into the Asiatic continent.
Contemporary national sentiments have a
way of influencing the politics of a country. Gareth was well versed in
the reasons for American isolationism. The depression of the early
thirties caused great hardship with much unemployment and financial loss
in the country. The Americans blamed this on the failure of the
repayment of the war debts and war reparations. They failed to
understand that insisting on the payments of war debts was causing them
far greater loss than the millions owed to them. It was not understood
that the method of repayment and tariff barriers prevented free trade
and was causing poverty in the countries that they felt owed them
money. When Gareth visited the Philippines he was to see the problem of
this isolationism and political lobbying. Just prior to the 1932
election Gareth wrote in The Western Mail an article
entitled: ‘How America sees the Debts Question’, portraying her
ignorance and mistrust of Europe. The previous year an American
Congressman had even declared the President of the United States was a
‘German Agent’, because he had declared the Hoover Moratorium.
Circumstances of the financial crisis had forced President Hoover to
pronounce this moratorium. Franklin Roosevelt bowed to the strong lobby
of farmers and America voted him into power as President of their
country.
In the summer of 1934, Gareth
interviewed Randolph Hearst, the newspaper magnate at his Welsh home, St
Donat’s Castle, initiating the conversation with the remark: “Was not
the Americans’ contribution to the War millions of dollars, whilst that
of Britain and France millions of men?” He replied that: “It was not
their War, but the Allies”. Gareth went on to say that in Wales
they were amused by Hearst’s remark: ‘Welshing on a debt’. Hearst’s
response was that it would be more accurate and more definitely
descriptive to say: “that a man who had repudiated on an obligation had
‘Englished’ on his debt. It was a phrase devised by Englishmen to
gratify the vanities and prejudices of Englishmen”.
1
Gareth standing directly behind
President Hoover at the White House, Washington together with the
Children of the Revolution, April 23rd 1931.
Gareth was aware of the interdependence
of the great nations of the world. As David Lloyd George’s Foreign
Affairs Adviser, he would have fully understood the repercussions of the
Treaty of Versailles, which were reverberating more than a decade
later. The British Prime Minister was one of its signatories in 1919,
after the Great War. The Treaty was sacred to the French and she was
against its revision. In Germany it had fermented great bitterness. In
an article he published in The Western Mail entitled: “The World
in Banking Crisis in 1931” he wrote graphically of how the collapse of
the major bank, Credit-Anstalt in Austria, had been sufficient to cause
a knock-on effect resulting in a financial crisis of global proportions
- a spark as small as that which set Europe afire in 1914. He
poignantly wrote: “the rumblings of disaster have grown more ominous.
Japan has taken advantage of the trouble in Europe to send troops into
Manchuria. The forces of Hitler, the fascist, have mounted in
Germany”. Appearing in The Western Mail on July 30th
1935, two days after bandits captured him, was an article by Gareth
entitled: “Anglo-American Relations from the Japanese point of view”.
Lloyd George, General Smuts and other statesmen were in favour of an
Anglo-American alliance and such an understanding was supported by one
of his colleagues in Japan. The latter considered that Japan was aiming
to dominate North China. Another view from Tokyo was that speeches by
Western politicians who had never visited the East, advocating such an
alliance, only antagonised a sensitive nation like Japan and increased
her feeling of isolation. A 1934 trade mission had improved relations
with Britain. The British Ambassador believed that Japan was becoming
friendlier towards the Soviet Union. A third colleague considered an
alliance with America was nonsense and that the Americans could not be
relied upon, that they had a passion for isolation and that they had no
great interests in the Far East. They were abandoning the Philippines
and would not help Britain defend Hong Kong or Shanghai. The only
alternative would be a close understanding with Japan. Gareth closed
his article with these words: “Which is the right point of view? I
shall not make up my mind until I have been through the Far East,
visited China and Manchukuo and returned for a second visit to Japan”.
As a consequence of the war loans of the First World War, Britain was
indebted to the United States. Despite these debts, in the period prior
to the Second World War, the British Empire was considered a great and a
dominant power in the Far East. On the other hand, Germany had become
an impoverished country. Following her defeat in the Great War and as a
result of the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which financially
crippled the nation, she lost her Empire. The German economic and
financial paralysis of 1930-32 made repayment of the war reparations
prohibitive and after the temporary moratorium these were permanently
repealed. Gareth was to see for himself the poverty of the people and
the demoralised youth who were unemployed and who had no hope of finding
work. Rebelling against the bondage of war reparations and the failure
of democracy, a disillusioned Germany allowed Hitler and the National
Socialists to come to power in early 1933. She began to re-arm and
turned to China, away from the “Jewish-Bolshevik” state of Russia to
import raw materials including wolfram (for tungsten) and antimony
required for armaments. In return, with the knowledge of the War
Personal letter to Gareth from David
Lloyd George.
Ministry, the Reichswehr, she gave advice and military equipment to
Marshall Chang Kai-shek for the purpose of suppressing the Communists
and the eventual war that might take place against the Japanese.
The retired General, Hans von Seeckt, one-time Commander-in-Chief of the
Reichswehr, went as a German military adviser to the Marshall and
introduced an industrialist, Klein, to him. With General von Seeckt’s
knowledge, Klein was also involved with the development of an armaments
factory and an arsenal in Canton for Marshall Chen Chi-tang’s Army. On
Gareth’s first visit to Hong Kong he saw Von Seeckt with a Chinese
General in mufti. The German Foreign Office (the Wilhelmstrasse) wished
to keep a balanced foreign policy between China and Japan. Unbeknown to
this department in the late spring of 1935 the Nazi, Joachim von
Ribbentrop, began secret negotiations with the Japanese Military
Attaché, General Oshima Hiroshi, in Berlin against the Soviet Union.
The significance of these negotiations, in the light of the suspicions
of Mr David Lloyd George's Secretary, Mr A.J. Sylvester as to Gareth's
inexplicable death, should become apparent to the reader on completing
this book, Gareth Jones: A Manchukuo Incident.
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